Report title: The State of Behavioral Threat Assessment and Management in K–12 Public Schools
The State of Behavioral Threat Assessment and Management in K–12 Public Schools
NCIER®
Key Terms
60 claims on pp. 1–163 (fact 13, statement 4, evidence 2, definition 41).
Claims about Key Terms
HSRD information: www.rand.org/hsrd
For more information on HSRD, see www.rand.org/hsrd.
BTAM is a widely adopted approach using multidisciplinary teams to evaluate and respond to concernin
To enhance the safety of children in schools, behavioral threat assessment and management (BTAM) has become a widely adopted approach to preventing violence and other harmful outcomes by bringing together multidisciplinary teams to systematically evaluate and appropriately respond to concerning student behaviors or threats.
NTAC defines a behavioral threat assessment as a proactive approach (NTAC, 2022)
“A behavioral threat assessment is a proactive approach to identify, assess, and provide appropriate interventions and resources for students who display a behavior that elicits concern for the safety of themselves or others”
BTAM approach: a multidisciplinary team systematically evaluates and responds to concerning behavior
The BTAM approach involves a multidisciplinary team—often including school administrators, counselors, and public safety professionals—systematically evaluating and responding to concerning student behaviors or threats.
BTAM process typically has three stages: referral, assessment, management
The BTAM process typically includes three stages: referral of a student based on observed behaviors or reported concerns, assessment of whether a student poses a risk of harm, and management of the situation through tailored interventions.
Figure 1.1 note: principals asked about a BTAM team or other formal group to identify at-risk studen
NOTE: Both data collections asked principals whether their school had a behavioral threat assessment team or “any other formal group of persons to identify students who might be a potential risk for violent or harmful behavior (toward themselves or others).”
Figure 1.1 note: SSOCS = School Survey on Crime and Safety; SPP = School Pulse Panel
SSOCS = School Survey on Crime and Safety; SPP = School Pulse Panel.
2021–2022: 65 percent of public schools reported having threat assessment teams (Burr et al., 2024)
Sample (no n: a percentage change, not a share of a sample) · a percentage that is not a share of a sample (e.g. a percentage-point change or a weighted estimate of the population)
By the 2021–2022 school year, 65 percent of public schools reported having such teams, in which threat assessment was defined as “a formalized process of identifying, assessing, and managing students who may pose a threat of targeted violence in schools” (Burr et al., 2024, p. 13).
Footnote 4: principals' responses speak for their schools; school is the unit of analysis
We interpret principals’ responses as speaking on behalf of their schools and therefore often report results using the school as the unit of analysis (e.g., “percent of schools who said X”).
Footnote 4: perception items reported per principal; terms interchangeable
However, for survey items that ask about principals’ perceptions, we report using the principal (e.g., “percent of principals who said Y”). These terms can be interpreted interchangeably.
Eighty-two percent of public schools have an official BTAM team
Sample (N = 1746) · All principals who completed the survey and received a weight (weighted to national K-12 public school principals/schools)
Eighty-two percent of public schools have a team that they explicitly call a BTAM team (for which we use the term official BTAM team).
Alternative teams are typically school-based and could be MTSS or PBIS teams
These are typically school-based teams that make decisions in cases of serious student behavioral concerns; they could be a team associated with a multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) or positive behavioral intervention system (PBIS) or some other team referred to by another name.
Footnote: some schools have programs not called BTAM but functionally similar
Some schools maintain programs that are not explicitly called BTAM but are functionally similar BTAM programs.
Footnote: BTAM-like team defined as a school-based team deciding on serious behavioral concerns
We define BTAM-like team as a school-based team that makes decisions regarding serious student behavioral concerns but is not formally referred to as a BTAM team.
Footnote: the Child Trends/NASBE authors focused on threat assessment, a broader category than BTAM
Note that the authors of this study were focused on threat assessment, which is a somewhat broader category than behavioral threat assessment and management as currently defined.
"Adaptation" means adjusting a named model to match local needs
During implementation efforts, such changes are often labeled “adaptation”—adjusting a named model to match local needs.
FERPA = Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act; HIPAA = Health Insurance Portability Act
FERPA = Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act; HIPAA = Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act.
BTAM teams are not intended as the primary vehicle for lower-level concerns or routine discipline
BTAM teams are not intended to be the primary vehicle for schools to respond to lower-level behavioral or mental health concerns, signals of change in a student’s well-being (e.g., depression, bullying, declining grades), or such routine school discipline issues as classroom disruption.
cite page 38 Ch 4: What Is the Scope of Schools' BTAM Programs?
Note: implementing BTAM with fidelity means consistently following established protocols and best pr
Implementing BTAM with fidelity means consistently following established protocols and best practices for BTAM, ensuring that each step of the process is carried out as intended by the chosen model or guidelines, whether a school has chosen to adopt an existing, named model or developed its own model to meet its needs.
Options capture the standardization of a team's process across cases
The options were meant to capture the degree of consistency or standardization that the BTAM team applied across cases—that is, whether these teams use a common structure and assessment process to consistently collect similar data across cases and a consistent method for deliberation across the set of cases referred to them.
Footnote a: witnesses are, for example, peers or staff who witnessed the behavior
For example, peers or staff who witnessed the behavior.
Footnote b: discipline records include but are not limited to history of prior threats
Including but not limited to history of prior threats.
Footnote c: survey specified a publicly available social media/online footprint
We specified “publicly available” social media/online footprint.
Footnote d: Sometimes includes rarely, sometimes, or frequently, collapsed for readability
Including respondents who selected “rarely,” “sometimes,” or “frequently.” We collapsed these three categories into one for readability.
Feasible means teams could explain the rationale to a parent, guardian, or other concerned individua
In other words, if asked, BTAM teams would be able to explain the rationale behind an assessment decision to a parent, guardian, or other concerned individual (i.e., why a student was determined to pose or not pose a threat).
BTAM management and support component identifies interventions for assessed students
The management and support component of BTAM focuses on identifying appropriate interventions and supportive programming for students who have been assessed by the BTAM team as posing a potential risk to themselves or others.
cite page 62 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
Safety interventions are protective measures for the at-risk individual, target, and school communit
Safety interventions can include a range of protective measures to ensure the safety of the at-risk individual, the target of a threat, and members of the school community more broadly.
cite page 64 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
Safety intervention examples: daily backpack searches or changes to class schedules
Specific examples include daily backpack searches or changes to class schedules.
cite page 64 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
Exclusionary discipline includes expulsion, relocation, and suspension of one month or more
Includes expulsion, relocation (i.e., placed in a different school), and suspension for one month or more.
cite page 67 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
BTAM defined as a proactive approach to identifying, assessing, and supporting students
BTAM is a proactive approach to identifying, assessing, and providing appropriate interventions and supports for students who display a behavior that elicits concerns about their own safety or the safety of others.
cite page 74 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
16 interventions sorted into five mutually exclusive categories
We examined this question by sorting our 16 interventions into five mutually exclusive categories: (1) target/victim support, (2) supportive discipline, (3) notification, (4) support-focused, and (5) restrictive.
cite page 87 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
ASLP stands for American School Leader Panel
ASLP: American School Leader Panel
BTAM stands for behavioral threat assessment and management
BTAM: behavioral threat assessment and management
EDGE stands for Education Demographic and Geographic Estimates
EDGE: Education Demographic and Geographic Estimates
HSOAC stands for Homeland Security Operational Analysis Center
HSOAC: Homeland Security Operational Analysis Center
K–12 stands for kindergarten through grade 12
K–12: kindergarten through grade 12
MCSS stands for Maryland Center for School Safety
MCSS: Maryland Center for School Safety
MTSS stands for multi-tiered systems of support
MTSS: multi-tiered systems of support
NABITA stands for National Association of Behavior Intervention and Threat Assessment
NABITA: National Association of Behavior Intervention and Threat Assessment
NASBE stands for National Association of State Boards of Education
NASBE: National Association of State Boards of Education
NCES stands for National Center for Education Statistics
NCES: National Center for Education Statistics
NIDA stands for National Institute on Drug Abuse
NIDA: National Institute on Drug Abuse
NTAC stands for National Threat Assessment Center
NTAC: National Threat Assessment Center
PBIS stands for positive behavioral intervention system
PBIS: positive behavioral intervention system
SOP stands for standard operating procedure
SOP: standard operating procedure
Melissa Kay Diliberti: author biography
Melissa Kay Diliberti is an associate policy researcher at RAND. Diliberti has a Ph.D. in policy analysis, a master of public policy, and a B.A. in political science and international studies.
Pauline Moore: author biography
Pauline Moore is a senior political scientist in the Defense and Political Sciences Department at RAND and a professor of policy analysis at Pardee RAND Pardee Graduate School. She has a Ph.D. in international relations.
Brian A. Jackson: author biography
Brian A. Jackson is a senior physical scientist at RAND. He holds a Ph.D. in bioinorganic chemistry and an M.A. in science, technology, and public policy.
Kelsey Morris: author biography
Kelsey Morris is an education program specialist for the U.S. Secret Service’s NTAC. He has an Ed.D. in educational leadership and an EdSp in PK–12 educational leadership and administration.
Wade Buckland: author biography
Wade Buckland is a researcher for the U.S. Secret Service’s NTAC. He holds a master of teaching in special education and a master’s degree in research methodology.
Lina Alathari: author biography
Lina Alathari is the chief of the U.S. Secret Service’s NTAC, where she oversees the center’s targeted violence behavioral research program. She has a Ph.D. in cognitive neuropsychology.
Steven Driscoll: author biography
Steven Driscoll is assistant chief (outreach) of the U.S. Secret Service’s NTAC. He has a master’s degree in education and a bachelor’s degree in criminology.
Diana Drysdale: author biography
Diana Drysdale is assistant chief (research) of the U.S. Secret Service’s NTAC. She has a master’s degree in international policy studies.
Jacquelyn Glidden: author biography
Jacquelyn Glidden is a social science research specialist at the U.S. Secret Service’s NTAC. She has a Ph.D. in human development and quantitative methodology.
Cover adapted from images by monkeybusinessimages, Kristen Prahl (Getty) and Thomas (Adobe Stock)
Cover adapted from images by monkeybusinessimages/Getty Images, Kristen Prahl/Getty Images and Thomas/Adobe Stock
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