Every claim in the map classified as definition, in report order.
The American Educator Panels (AEP) are nationally representative samples of teachers, school leaders, and K–12 public school districts across the country.
The HSOAC FFRDC provides the government with independent and objective analyses and advice in core areas important to the department in support of policy development, decisionmaking, alternative approaches, and new ideas on issues of significance.
To enhance the safety of children in schools, behavioral threat assessment and management (BTAM) has become a widely adopted approach to preventing violence and other harmful outcomes by bringing together multidisciplinary teams to systematically evaluate and appropriately respond to concerning student behaviors or threats.
“A behavioral threat assessment is a proactive approach to identify, assess, and provide appropriate interventions and resources for students who display a behavior that elicits concern for the safety of themselves or others”
The BTAM approach involves a multidisciplinary team—often including school administrators, counselors, and public safety professionals—systematically evaluating and responding to concerning student behaviors or threats.
The BTAM process typically includes three stages: referral of a student based on observed behaviors or reported concerns, assessment of whether a student poses a risk of harm, and management of the situation through tailored interventions.
SSOCS = School Survey on Crime and Safety; SPP = School Pulse Panel.
More specifically, we examined differences in educators’ responses based on six school characteristics: (1) grade levels served, (2) school locale, (3) school neighborhood poverty status, (4) student racial/ethnic composition, (5) school enrollment size, and (6) district enrollment size.
We used these data to divide states into three groups, roughly corresponding to their policy context at the time of the review (2019):
Early legislation states (18 states), including states where, in 2019, state legal requirements, regulations or district policy required school districts to adopt threat assessment as a safety measure.
This category could include states that had explicit laws about schools using the practice, or policies requiring training or mandating assessment processes as part of their response to violent incidents (sometimes in the broader context of bullying and violence response).
States that encouraged schools to use BTAM (20 states), combining states where, in 2019, state law, regulation, or district policy encourage[d] districts to adopt threat assessment policies and states where BTAM was not addressed in state law or regulations, but was covered in non-codified policy.
Other states (13 states), which included those where BTAM was not addressed in state law or regulation as of 2019.
We interpret principals’ responses as speaking on behalf of their schools and therefore often report results using the school as the unit of analysis (e.g., “percent of schools who said X”).
However, for survey items that ask about principals’ perceptions, we report using the principal (e.g., “percent of principals who said Y”). These terms can be interpreted interchangeably.
These are typically school-based teams that make decisions in cases of serious student behavioral concerns; they could be a team associated with a multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) or positive behavioral intervention system (PBIS) or some other team referred to by another name.
We define BTAM-like team as a school-based team that makes decisions regarding serious student behavioral concerns but is not formally referred to as a BTAM team.
During implementation efforts, such changes are often labeled “adaptation”—adjusting a named model to match local needs.
FERPA = Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act; HIPAA = Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act.
the BTAM approach is designed to respond to a variety of behaviors of concern, not limited to explicit or direct threats.
cite page 38 Ch 4: What Is the Scope of Schools' BTAM Programs?
For example, threats against teachers.
cite page 39 Ch 4: What Is the Scope of Schools' BTAM Programs?
For example, fixation on Columbine attacks, fixation on animal cruelty or abuse, or viewing websites with extremist or violent content.
cite page 39 Ch 4: What Is the Scope of Schools' BTAM Programs?
For example, frequent verbal or limited physical conflicts without concerns about weapon use, bullying, or fighting.
cite page 39 Ch 4: What Is the Scope of Schools' BTAM Programs?
Procedures provide clear guidelines, such as step-by-step instructions for implementing specific components of BTAM (e.g., conducting behavioral threat assessments, assigning supports and interventions).
Implementing BTAM with fidelity means consistently following established protocols and best practices for BTAM, ensuring that each step of the process is carried out as intended by the chosen model or guidelines, whether a school has chosen to adopt an existing, named model or developed its own model to meet its needs.
The BTAM process relies on a multidisciplinary team of individuals to assess the level of concern appropriate to specific behaviors or threats and make decisions about how to respond.
This table presents response data from the following survey question: “Which of the following staff members do you have at your school, either full or part time?” (N = 1,746).
Counselor | | | [unlabeled] | [unlabeled] | [unlabeled] | [unlabeled] | [unlabeled] | [unlabeled]
This section discusses principals’ responses to questions exploring the training for members of their schools’ BTAM teams.
Sample (no n: a percentage change, not a share of a sample) · a percentage that is not a share of a sample (e.g. a percentage-point change or a weighted estimate of the population)
Rows may not sum to 100 percent because of rounding.
When a case is referred to a BTAM team, the behavioral threat assessment component of BTAM involves gathering information to determine whether a student who engaged in concerning behavior may pose a risk of harm.
The assessment process can be divided into two main stages: (1) gathering information to understand the nature and severity of the concerning behavior or threat and (2) making a judgment about the risk of harm the individual poses to themself or others.
In this chapter, we analyze principals’ responses to questions about the assessment component of their BTAM programs (the management and support component is discussed in the next chapter).
The options were meant to capture the degree of consistency or standardization that the BTAM team applied across cases—that is, whether these teams use a common structure and assessment process to consistently collect similar data across cases and a consistent method for deliberation across the set of cases referred to them.
For example, peers or staff who witnessed the behavior.
Including but not limited to history of prior threats.
We specified “publicly available” social media/online footprint.
Including respondents who selected “rarely,” “sometimes,” or “frequently.” We collapsed these three categories into one for readability.
In other words, if asked, BTAM teams would be able to explain the rationale behind an assessment decision to a parent, guardian, or other concerned individual (i.e., why a student was determined to pose or not pose a threat).
The management and support component of BTAM focuses on identifying appropriate interventions and supportive programming for students who have been assessed by the BTAM team as posing a potential risk to themselves or others.
cite page 62 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
The other two approaches/options include building systems and decision aids that help teams design intervention plans, essentially providing a “support system for the team” to build a strong and consistent process for selecting interventions across different students assessed by the team while still developing plans that are consistent for students’ needs.
cite page 63 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
The most robust approach/option supplements the intervention inventory with structured decision support tools that help teams select interventions tailored to the student’s needs.
cite page 63 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
Safety interventions can include a range of protective measures to ensure the safety of the at-risk individual, the target of a threat, and members of the school community more broadly.
cite page 64 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
Specific examples include daily backpack searches or changes to class schedules.
cite page 64 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
Includes expulsion, relocation (i.e., placed in a different school), and suspension for one month or more.
cite page 67 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
For example, counselors.
cite page 72 Ch 10: How Do BTAM Teams Monitor Intervention Plans?
For example, reports on treatment delivery.
cite page 72 Ch 10: How Do BTAM Teams Monitor Intervention Plans?
For example, when a student returns to school after an absence.
cite page 72 Ch 10: How Do BTAM Teams Monitor Intervention Plans?
For example, use of behavioral graphs to visualize improvements in student behavior.
cite page 72 Ch 10: How Do BTAM Teams Monitor Intervention Plans?
BTAM is a proactive approach to identifying, assessing, and providing appropriate interventions and supports for students who display a behavior that elicits concerns about their own safety or the safety of others.
cite page 74 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
fixation on violence (graphic picture of someone shooting at a group of people)
cite page 75 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
concerning home context (previous unsuccessful attempts to contact the student’s family)
cite page 75 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
history of academic issues (academic progress)
cite page 75 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
withdrawal or depression (appeared withdrawn and sad in class).
cite page 75 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Warning to named targets or victims of threats and safety planning to protect targets/victims | Target/victim support
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Parent consultation or home visit | Notification
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Warning or verbal correction of behavior | Supportive discipline
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Disciplinary measures (e.g., in-school detention; removal of privileges) | Supportive discipline
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Behavioral or movement controls (e.g., changes to arrival time or passing times) | Supportive discipline
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Programming to help the student build relationships with trusted adults (e.g., regular check-ins; adult mentoring) | Support-focused
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Skill-building services (e.g., social skills- or leadership skills-building program) | Support-focused
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Programming to help the student build peer relationships and engagement (e.g., friend or peer mentor groups) | Support-focused
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Individualized academic or vocational programming | Support-focused
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Special education or disability supports | Support-focused
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Mental health counseling or care | Support-focused
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Substance use treatment | Support-focused
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Family support and intervention programming for the student and their family | Support-focused
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Temporary removal from school (suspension) | Restrictive
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Permanent removal from school (e.g., expulsion, transfer to an alternative school) | Restrictive
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Law enforcement action (for example, arrest), civil or criminal legal proceedings | Restrictive
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Figure 11.3 displays the top three most commonly selected interventions for each of our 16 scenarios.
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Column header: Most commonly used interventions. Columns: 1st, 2nd, 3rd. Row groups (vertical labels): Elementary (Scenarios A–H), Secondary (Scenarios I–P).
cite page 82 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Assess need for or start mental health counseling or care
cite page 82 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
What action(s) would this person or group at your school likely take or recommend in response to this student’s behavior?
cite page 82 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Respondents were instructed to select all that apply out of a list of interventions presented, and we display the top three most commonly selected interventions.
cite page 82 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 82 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
In Figure 11.4, we present the percentage of schools that selected specific intervention options in response to the most severe and least severe scenarios, by grade level
cite page 84 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Horizontal axis: Percentage of schools, ticks 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100.
cite page 85 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Legend, Elementary panel: Low-severity incident (Scenario A) (blue diamond); High-severity incident (Scenario H) (orange diamond).
cite page 85 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
What action(s) would this person or group at your school likely take or recommend in response to this student’s behavior?
cite page 85 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Respondents were instructed to select all that apply.
cite page 85 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 85 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Some data labels have been removed for readability.
cite page 85 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Some response options have also been truncated for readability.
cite page 85 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
The typical, or median, number of interventions that schools said they would use to respond to a scenario is shown by a horizontal line.
cite page 86 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
The boxes show the number of interventions selected by most schools (i.e., those schools that fall in the middle of the distribution between the 25th and 75th percentile).
cite page 86 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
The vertical lines show the full range of the number of interventions chosen.
cite page 86 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario B: A student regularly engages in disruptive behavior during class, but the student’s teachers do not consider the student’s behavior threatening.
cite page 86 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Last school year, the family declined staff suggestions that the student might benefit from supports for neurodiverse learners.
cite page 86 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
This school year, the student’s behavior has escalated, and the student is involved in a physical altercation with another student that does not result in injuries.
cite page 86 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Figure 11.5 shows the range of how many interventions schools selected to respond to each scenario.
cite page 86 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Box plots carry no printed data values; the box/whisker positions are not labeled.
cite page 87 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Annotation key at right: Range of number of interventions selected (whiskers); 75th percentile (top of box); Median (line in box); 25th percentile (bottom of box).
cite page 87 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Low scenario; Medium scenario; High scenario
cite page 87 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
What action(s) would this person or group at your school likely take or recommend in response to this student’s behavior?
cite page 87 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Respondents were instructed to select all that apply.
cite page 87 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 87 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Outliers were removed for readability.
cite page 87 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
We examined this question by sorting our 16 interventions into five mutually exclusive categories: (1) target/victim support, (2) supportive discipline, (3) notification, (4) support-focused, and (5) restrictive.
cite page 87 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
We then investigated what the distribution of interventions looks like across these categories and individually across each scenario.
cite page 87 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Table 11.2 shows which specific interventions are included in each category.
cite page 87 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
(n = 1,420 observations for low-severity scenarios; n = 1,420 observations for medium-severity scenarios; n = 1,417 for high-severity scenarios)
cite page 88 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 88 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
The shading shows how these interventions are distributed across our five categories.
cite page 88 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
interventions that schools reported taking in response to each scenario presented.
Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 88 part and the sentence begins on page 87. Full sentence (pages 87–88): “Figure 11.6 shows the mean number of interventions that schools reported taking in response to each scenario presented.”
cite page 88 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
(n = 1,420 observations for low-severity scenarios; n = 1,420 observations for medium-severity scenarios; n = 1,419 for high-severity scenarios)
cite page 90 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Respondents were instructed to select all that apply.
cite page 90 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 90 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
For example, suspension.
cite page 90 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
For example, expulsion or transfer to an alternative school.
cite page 90 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
For example, arrest, civil, or criminal legal proceedings.
cite page 90 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
with the darkness of shading showing the percentage of schools that indicated they would include a specific option in an intervention plan.
cite page 91 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
(n = 1,420 observations for low-severity scenarios; n = 1,420 observations for medium-severity scenarios; n = 1,419 for high-severity scenarios)
cite page 92 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Respondents were instructed to select all that apply.
cite page 92 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 92 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Percentage of Schools That Would Use Various Actions in Response to the Scenarios Provided
cite page 92 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “How effective do you believe this BTAM team is at maintaining school safety?” (n = 1,406).
cite page 94 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 94 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “What impact do you think your BTAM program has had on the following outcomes at your school?” (n = 1,377).
cite page 95 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 95 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “What impact do you think your school or district’s BTAM program has had on school climate at your school?” (n = 1,377).
cite page 96 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 96 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
Some data labels have been removed for readability.
cite page 96 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “What impact do you think your BTAM program has had on the following outcomes at your school?” (n = 1,377).
cite page 97 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 97 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
Bars may not sum to totals because of rounding.
cite page 97 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
An asterisk (*) indicates that the percentage of principals in secondary schools who said decreased or significantly decreased was statistically significantly different from the percentage of principals in elementary schools who said similarly.
cite page 97 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “What impact do you think your BTAM program has had on the following outcomes at your school?” (n = 1,377).
cite page 98 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 98 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
Bars may not sum to totals because of rounding.
cite page 98 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
Some data labels have been removed for readability.
cite page 98 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
We collapsed “significantly decreased” and “decreased” as well as “significantly increased” and “increased” for readability purposes.
cite page 98 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
We present the data in this chapter with an eye toward continuous improvement, focusing again on those schools with official BTAM teams.
cite page 100 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
In this chapter, we look toward the future to discuss what principals told us about what they think could help strengthen BTAM in K–12 schools and how their programs incorporate processes and activities focused on improving program effectiveness over time.
cite page 100 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “How supportive is your school community of BTAM as a school safety approach?” (n = 1,376).
cite page 101 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 101 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
As a proxy measure to capture the resilience of a school’s BTAM program to changes in staffing, we asked principals whether they perceived that a leadership change (for instance, were they to vacate their position) would result in changes to their school’s use of or approach to BTAM.
cite page 101 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “Would a leadership change at your school (e.g., were you to vacate your position) result in changes to your school's use of or approach to BTAM?” (n = 1,376).
cite page 102 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 102 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
To assess what challenges schools’ BTAM programs are facing now, we gave survey respondents a menu of 13 options they could flag as current concerns (Figure 13.3).
cite page 103 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “Is your school experiencing or has it experienced any of the following challenges when it comes to operating its BTAM program?” (n = 1,376).
cite page 103 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 103 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
For example, because of costs.
cite page 103 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
For example, law enforcement, medical providers.
cite page 103 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
In our survey, we asked principals if their schools’ BTAM teams engaged in any such activities, ranging from after-action reviews of past cases to systematic data analyses across cases and gathering feedback from program participants.
cite page 104 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “Which of the following processes are part of how your BTAM program operates?” (n = 1,376).
cite page 105 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
Respondents were instructed to select all that apply.
cite page 105 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 105 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “Which of the following processes are part of how your BTAM program operates?” (n = 1,376).
cite page 106 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
Respondents were instructed to select all that apply.
cite page 106 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
cite page 106 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
An asterisk (*) indicates that the percentage of principals in schools with small BTAM teams who said their team engages in a specific review and reflection process was statistically significantly different from the percentage of principals in schools with large BTAM teams who said similarly.
cite page 106 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
For example, special education students, neurodiverse students, race/ethnicity minority students, gender and sexual minority students, socioeconomically disadvantaged students.
cite page 106 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
According to the U.S. Department of Education’s definition, violent incidents include rape or attempted rape, sexual assault other than rape, physical attacks or fights with or without a weapon, threat of physical attacks with or without a weapon, and robbery with or without a weapon (Burr et al., 2024, p. 3).
FERPA = Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act; HIPAA = Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act.
The ASLP is a panel of K–12 public school principals.
Low-severity scenarios described incidents in which BTAM teams likely should not be involved (e.g., low-level discipline incidents, such as classroom misbehavior).
High-severity scenarios described incidents in which BTAM teams definitely should be involved, such as students making direct threats to themselves or others.
Medium-severity scenarios were designed to describe borderline cases, in which schools might have more discretion over whether BTAM teams can or should be involved.
Principals were categorized as primarily serving middle grades if their school contained grades 7 or 8.
Principals were categorized as serving primarily elementary grades if their school contained any grades from kindergarten through 6.
Principals were categorized as serving primarily high school grades if their school contained any grades from 9 through 12.
calibrated weight of the sampling frame (a calibration weight that assigns a weight for each panelist based on individual- and school-level characteristics so that the sum of the weights along the calibration factors closely match the national characteristics of the national population of public school principals based on the NCES’s National Teacher and Principal Survey)
sample selection weight (the inverse of the probability of selection into the survey sample using the panel as the frame)
survey response weight (the inverse of modeled probability of a principal completing the survey. The response adjustment is important to eliminate observed sources of response bias).
school grade level (elementary, middle, and high)
school locale (urban, suburban, and rural)
school student racial/ethnic composition (schools in which more than half of students were Black, Hispanic, Asian, Pacific Islander, American Indian/Alaska Native, or of two or more races were categorized as having majority students of color, with the remaining schools categorized as having majority White students.)
Our definition of locale aligns with the four-category definition of locale used by NCES, with the exception that we collapsed those located in towns into the rural category.
Numbers in brackets represent confidence intervals.
school neighborhood poverty (low, middle, or high poverty based on the income-to-poverty ratio [IPR] for the neighborhood surrounding the school.
IPR is the percentage of family income that is above or below the federal poverty threshold set for the family’s size and structure and ranges from 0 to 999.
Schools with an IPR less than or equal to 200 were categorized as high poverty.
Schools with an IPR of greater than or equal to 401 were categorized as low poverty.
Remaining schools were categorized as middle poverty.
school enrollment size (schools with fewer than 450 students were categorized as small, whereas the remainder were categorized as large.)
district enrollment size (districts serving fewer than 10,000 students were categorized as small, whereas districts serving 10,000 students or more were categorized as large.)
ASLP: American School Leader Panel
BTAM: behavioral threat assessment and management
EDGE: Education Demographic and Geographic Estimates
HSOAC: Homeland Security Operational Analysis Center
K–12: kindergarten through grade 12
MCSS: Maryland Center for School Safety
MTSS: multi-tiered systems of support
NABITA: National Association of Behavior Intervention and Threat Assessment
NASBE: National Association of State Boards of Education
NCES: National Center for Education Statistics
NIDA: National Institute on Drug Abuse
NTAC: National Threat Assessment Center
PBIS: positive behavioral intervention system
SOP: standard operating procedure
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